Doctoral education

Doctoral education (DE), traditionally anchored in the PhD model, is undergoing significant transformation in response to global economic, technological, and policy shifts. This chapter adopts a multi-level framework—macro- (global drivers), meso- (national and supranational frameworks), and micro- (institutional and programme-level practices)—to examine how these forces are reshaping DE. A systematic review of 282 peer-reviewed articles published between 2014 and 2024 reveals a growing emphasis on employability, structured programmes, industry partnerships, and diversity, equity, and inclusion, although outcomes remain uneven. The analysis highlights key conceptual, methodological, empirical, and results-related gaps. Research disproportionately focuses on high-income regions, STEM fields, and visible themes such as internationalisation and quality assurance, while areas including supervision, mental health, funding models, and underrepresented regions receive limited attention. Tensions between academic autonomy and market-driven reforms, as well as between global policies and local practices, further complicate the landscape. To remain relevant and inclusive, DE must balance global standardisation with academic freedom, enhance supervision, and support diverse career pathways. Future research should address these overlooked areas through mixed-methods and comparative approaches, enabling DE to evolve as a resilient and socially responsive pillar of the knowledge economy.