Fischer–Tropsch Synthesis from Micro to Macro Scale: Bridging Experimental Advances and Industrial Applications

Interest in further developments of the classical Fischer–Tropsch technology has increased in recent years. The development of processes capable of producing synthetic fuels has become a highly attractive research area due to the continuous global growth in energy demand. An extensive review covering the full development chain (from laboratory-scale experiments to pilot-scale studies and plant-level implementations) is therefore of significant relevance. Consequently, this review aims to be a reference by integrating findings across different development levels of Fischer–Tropsch synthesis technologies, thereby enabling a holistic perspective of the pathway toward industrial-scale deployment. The present work thus critically reviews recent advances in catalyst development, including the role of active phases, particle size effects, supports, and promoters, as well as the growing contribution of in situ and operando characterization techniques. In parallel, progress in kinetic and mechanistic modeling is discussed, highlighting both classical approaches and emerging data-driven and optimization-based methods. Different reactor technologies, from classical to novel technologies, are also analyzed with respect to hydrodynamics, heat and mass transfer limitations, and reactor intensification strategies. At the process level, the review assesses integrated and intensified Fischer–Tropsch-based routes, with particular emphasis on CO2 utilization pathways, process integration, polygeneration schemes, and optimization frameworks. The potential of artificial intelligence and machine learning tools to accelerate catalyst discovery, reactor optimization, and process design is also addressed. Overall, this review identifies key technological advances, remaining challenges, and research gaps that must be addressed to enable economically viable and environmentally sustainable, and scalable Fischer–Tropsch processes to meet future energy demands.