User experience, safety perceptions, and adoption intentions for autonomous shuttles: findings from a UK trial-phase survey

Introduction Autonomous shuttles (AS) are increasingly being tested in real-world environments, yet robust empirical evidence from live UK trials remains limited. This study investigates public awareness, user experience, and behavioural intentions during a public AS trial conducted at the National Exhibition Centre (NEC) campus in Birmingham, UK. Methods An in-situ survey was conducted during the live AS trial, with 321 respondents participating. Of these, 51% were aware of the service, and 71% of those aware had used the shuttle. Users evaluated ten service attributes, including waiting time, boarding, comfort, responsiveness, and perceived safety. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the main dimensions influencing passenger experience. Results PCA identified a single underlying dimension, termed “overall passenger experience,” as the primary influencing factor, with consistently high ratings across all service attributes. A majority of users (62%) indicated they would “definitely” use the shuttle regularly if available, suggesting strong initial acceptance and positive user experience. Among non-users, the most frequently reported barriers were lack of information (38%), no perceived need (32%), and safety concerns (30%). The findings indicate a clear exposure effect, whereby direct experience with the shuttle was associated with more positive evaluations and stronger behavioural intentions. Discussion The study provides novel UK-based evidence from a live autonomous shuttle trial and highlights the importance of communication, service design, and real-world exposure in shaping public acceptance. The findings suggest that increasing public familiarity and addressing informational barriers may play a critical role in supporting the wider adoption of autonomous shuttles in urban mobility systems.