Understanding safety perceptions, trust, and acceptance of autonomous shuttles: findings from a UK pre-trial survey

Introduction Autonomous shuttles (AS) are increasingly being trialled for campus and first-/last-mile transport services. However, their successful adoption depends on public attitudes towards safety, trust, and service reliability. This study examined pre-trial perceptions and willingness to ride (WTR) autonomous shuttles in the United Kingdom. Methods A pre-trial survey (n = 922) was conducted with travellers at the National Exhibition Centre (NEC), Birmingham, United Kingdom. The survey assessed demographics, travel behaviour, attitudes towards AS, and WTR across four operational scenarios with varying levels of human supervision. Statistical analysis included principal component analysis to identify underlying attitudinal dimensions. Results WTR was highest for manned services involving drivers (driver + steward: 95%; driver only: 87%) and declined significantly when human supervision was reduced, with steward-only (65%) and staff-free (31%) operations receiving the lowest levels of acceptance. Two attitudinal components, reflecting psychological perceptions and service/operational expectations, explained 62% of the variance. Travel behaviour findings revealed high levels of car dependency and predominantly solo travel among both staff and visitors. Safety (25%), trust (23%), and reliability (23%) were the most frequently reported barriers, whereas environmental friendliness (33%) and reliability (17%) were the most commonly perceived benefits. Discussion The findings suggest that pre-use acceptance of autonomous shuttles is strongly influenced by visible human supervision and confidence in service reliability. Early deployment strategies should therefore prioritise safety assurance, operational reliability, and clear human oversight to support public acceptance and adoption.