Cutting-Edge Diagnostics and Nanotechnology-Enabled Precision Medicine in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Comprehensive Review.

INTRODUCTION: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the largest health burdens in the world because of high mortality rates, low early diagnostic sensitivity, and poor response to conventional treatment. The existing diagnostic and treatment methods tend to be non-specific and linked with systemic toxicity and late cancer detection, which provokes the necessity of more accurate, precision-driven methods. METHODS: This review analyzes recent developments in HCC diagnosis and treatment, including new biomarkers, liquid biopsy, and nanotechnology-based therapeutic systems. We critically analysed relevant studies on molecular biomarkers, tumour microenvironment targets, and various nanocarrier platforms. RESULTS: Newer biomarkers such as Glypican-3, Exosomal microRNAs, circulating tumour DNA methylation panels, AFP-L3, IFI44L, miR-375, miR-203, and CD19 on tumour-associated macrophages showed better diagnostic sensitivity and specificity. Nanotherapeutics approaches that use lipid-based nanoparticles, polymeric systems, inorganic nanoparticles, metal-based nanoparticles, and carbon-based nanocarriers displayed enhanced therapy delivery, targeting, and therapeutic effects. Liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles had especially promising outcomes. DISCUSSION: A combination of biomarker-based diagnostics and nanotechnology-based diagnostic delivery systems will enable earlier detection, treatment, and delivery of therapeutic agents, reducing systemic toxicity. The liquid biopsy, multi-omics profiling, and AI-assisted imaging developments further improve the accuracy of diagnosis and personalised treatment. CONCLUSION: Biomarker-based diagnostics and nanocarrier-based therapeutics are potential solutions to enhance HCC management by improving early diagnosis, treatment outcomes, and prognosis.