A systematic framework for ecological restoration of degraded grasslands: Theoretical integration, technological combination, and efficiency assessment.

Grassland degradation has become a critical constraint on regional ecological functions and the sustainable development of pastoral systems in China. To address key challenges in restoration practices, including fragmented measures, mismatches between technologies and degradation types, and the overemphasis on construction over long-term management, we developed a systematic grassland restoration framework based on systematic restoration theory, integrating the concepts of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and near-natural restoration. The framework centered on degradation diagnosis and the identification of dominant limiting factor, and integrated key technology configuration, engineering equipment matching, multidimensional benefit evaluation, and feedback optimization into a closed-loop decision-making pathway of "diagnosis-configuration-evaluation-regulation". By introducing an "ecological state assessment-pathway differentiation" mechanism, the restoration process was transformed from a linear implementation model into a dynamic optimization process, thereby overcoming the infinite-loop limitations of conventional restoration approaches. Restoration effectiveness depended on the precise matching between limiting factors and technology combinations rather than on single techniques or intervention intensity. Multidimensional bene-fit evaluation should be embedded during restoration as a key driver of adaptive management. The proposed framework achieved the systematic integration of restoration theory, technical pathways, efficiency assessment, and mana-gement regulation, providing support for precise decision-making and long-term regulation of grassland restoration under different degradation scenarios in China.