Toxicological impact of sand and dust storms on human health: A review on the molecular mechanisms involved.

Sand and dust storms (SDS) are natural events in which strong winds cause sand saltation and dust suspension in arid regions, transporting particles across continents and oceans. These particles, mainly minerals such as quartz and clay, can also carry biological materials (e.g., bacteria, viruses) and natural or anthropogenic pollutants (e.g., heavy metals), altering their chemical composition during transport. SDS degrade air quality by increasing particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), posing a global public health challenge, especially as their frequency and intensity increase due to climate change and human activities. This review aims to provide an overview of current knowledge on the mechanisms underlying sand dust toxicity. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown that desert dust primarily induces cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and proinflammatory responses. Additionally, it can exacerbate the effects of bacterial or viral infections. However, research gaps remain and are discussed in this paper. For example, most in vivo studies focus on Asian sand dust, neglecting Saharan dust, which accounts for the majority of global emissions. Furthermore, non-respiratory systems (e.g., cardiovascular, nervous) are understudied. Finally, future research perspectives are proposed, such as expanding studies to include various dust types, target organs, and exposure methods, or incorporating New Approach Methodologies (NAMs). Addressing these gaps could inform specific public health measures, as current regulations treat SDS as generic PM pollution, overlooking their unique characteristics and specific hazards.