Assessment of environmental and mechanical factors affecting cement-based triboelectric nanogenerators: Stability and durability

Cement-based triboelectric nanogenerators (CBTENGs) offer a transformative pathway toward self-powering and intelligent transportation infrastructure by harvesting mechanical energy from pavement surfaces. However, their practical deployment requires a comprehensive understanding of their environmental and mechanical durability and adaptability. This study presents the first systematic durability assessment of CBTENGs under combined environmental and mechanical interferences, investigating their stability under diverse service conditions, including temperature, relative humidity, freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycling, acid attack, abrasion, dynamic impact loading, and fatigue. The results reveal that output current increases by up to 35% as temperature rises from -20 °C to 80 °C, mainly attributed to enhanced interfacial polarization, increased dielectric mobility, improved charge localization, and reduced energy barriers. An optimal humidity level (∼50% relative humidity) maximizes charge generation through hydrogen bond-mediated dipole alignment, whereas excessive moisture induces conductive pathways, leading to approximately 28% output degradation. The devices retain over 90% of their initial output after 20 freeze-thaw or wet-dry cycles and maintain stable performance over 9000 fatigue cycles. Nevertheless, sulfuric acid exposure reduces output by 55%, highlighting chemical degradation as the dominant deterioration mode. The results establish the environmental and mechanical reliability of CBTENGs and elucidate the microstructural and interfacial mechanisms governing charge retention, providing a robust foundation for the development of durable and efficient energy-harvesting pavement systems.