Avocado seed, from industrial waste to functional starch: a critical review of extraction technologies, physicochemical-functional properties, and industrial application prospects

ABSTRACT Avocado seed ( Persea americana Mill.) is an abundant agro-industrial by-product generated during fruit processing and has attracted increasing attention as an alternative source of starch. Although several studies have reported the extraction and characterization of avocado seed starch, the available literature remains fragmented, with limited critical comparison among extraction methods, starch properties, and actual industrial applicability. This review critically discusses conventional aqueous and chemically assisted extraction processes, as well as emerging technologies such as microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), and pulsed electric field-assisted extraction (PEF). Special attention is given to the physicochemical and functional properties of the isolated starch, as well as to the impact of the raw material used and its processing. Current evidence indicates that avocado seed starch exhibits promising functional properties. However, studies remain at the laboratory scale, and direct industrial implementation is still limited by raw material variability, processing costs, the scarcity of pilot-scale data, and insufficient techno-economic and life cycle assessments.