The Additive Arithmetic of Linear Orders

We present a systematic development of the arithmetic of the class of linear orders under the ordered sum $(LO, +)$ and prove a number of new results. Our approach is based on a Euclidean algorithm for pairs of linear orders that almost additively commute. Among our results: (i.) We generalize and give unified proofs of the main classical theorems for $(LO, +)$, including Lindenbaum's division theorem for $(LO, +)$ and a representation theorem for additively commuting pairs of linear orders due to Aronszajn. (ii.) We solve the following problem, posed by Tarski in 1956: is it true that for every pair of linear orders $A, B$ and quadruple of natural numbers $n, m, k, l \geq 1$, if $nA + mB \cong kB + lA$ then $A + B \cong B + A$? Tarski and Chang showed the answer is yes for certain choices of the coefficients $n, m, k, l$. We show the answer is yes in general. (iii.) We prove the following characterization of the additively commuting pairs in $LO$: $A + B \cong B + A$ if and only if $ωA$ embeds initially in $ωB$ and $ω^* A$ embeds finally in $ω^* B$, or vice versa. We show this can be viewed as a correctly revised version of a refuted conjecture of Tarski. (iv.) We characterize the commutative semigroups $(S, \oplus)$ that can be represented in $(LO, +)$ and show in particular they are all naturally totally ordered commutative semigroups in the sense of Clifford.