Virus-Like Particle Platforms for <i>Plasmodium knowlesi</i> Vaccine Development: Current Progress and Future Perspectives

Plasmodium knowlesi (P. knowlesi) has emerged as a significant zoonotic malaria pathogen in Southeast Asia, necessitating urgent vaccine development efforts. Virus-like particle (VLP) platforms represent a promising approach for malaria vaccine development, offering enhanced immunogenicity through repetitive antigen display and self-adjuvanting properties. While VLP-based vaccines have demonstrated success against other Plasmodium species, their application to P. knowlesi remains largely unexplored. This review examines the biology and epidemiology of P. knowlesi, the principles underlying VLP technology, current VLP-based approaches for malaria antigens, and the specific challenges and opportunities for developing VLP-based vaccines against P. knowlesi.