FROM TOXICOLOGY TO TECHNOLOGY: HUMAN HEALTH RISKS OF MYCOTOXINS IN THE FOOD CHAIN AND CURRENT APPROACHES TO THEIR DETECTION AND CONTROL

Mycotoxins are small secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. They are common contaminants of food and feed and pose a serious threat to public health. These toxins exert acute and chronic effects ranging from hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, estrogenic, neurotoxic, and immunosuppressive outcomes to mutagenicity and carcinogenicity, with exposure occurring via ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Major classes include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins, zearalenone (ZEA), trichothecenes, and patulin, frequently contaminating cereals, nuts, spices, dried fruits, juices, and dairy products. Climate change, through drought, heat, and elevated CO₂, is expected to alter fungal growth and raise mycotoxin risks. The burden is highlighted by aflatoxicosis outbreaks, such as the 2004 event in Kenya that caused 125 deaths. Mechanistic studies show that aflatoxin B₁ can be activated by cytochrome P450, form DNA adducts, and lead to hepatocellular carcinoma. OTA is nephrotoxic and potentially carcinogenic; fumonisins disrupt sphingolipid metabolism with links to esophageal cancer; ZEA perturbs endocrine function and fertility. Analytical surveillance employs chromatographic platforms (LC/GC) with fluorescence, UV, or mass spectrometry, alongside immunoassays and immunoaffinity workflows. Key challenges include achieving trace-level sensitivity, ensuring specificity in complex matrices, and lowering operational costs, which limit monitoring in resource-constrained regions. Regulatory limits, such as those set by the EU, emphasize standardized detection and risk control. Mitigation relies on a farm-to-fork approach integrating good agricultural practices, biological and chemical controls, and effective post-harvest handling. Physical and bioprocessing methods like gamma irradiation, cold plasma, ammoniation, alkaline treatments, and microbial or enzymatic degradation using Lactobacillus, Saccharomyces, laccases, and aflatoxin-oxidase offer practical reduction strategies. Emerging precision biosensors, AI-based risk prediction, and genome-driven biocontrol and enzyme engineering promise earlier detection and improved detoxification. This review synthesizes current insights on toxicology, monitoring, and mitigation to lower human exposure and protect food systems.