3D Imaging of the Comparative Anatomical Structure of the Ossa Cranii in Some Ruminants.

Three-dimensional comparative descriptions of the ossa cranii across representatives of the Camelidae, Giraffidae, and Bovidae remain limited despite their relevance to comparative veterinary anatomy and clinical practice. Given the distinct structural variations and functional adaptations of these families, a descriptive comparison of ossa cranii morphology is needed to advance anatomical knowledge and establish species-specific reference data. This study compared the principal ossa cranii of camel, giraffe, cattle, sheep, and goat to identify conserved anatomical features and species-specific adaptations. High-resolution three-dimensional digital skull models were generated with a Creality Raptor blue laser scanner and processed using 3D Slicer (Version 5.6.2). Due to marked interspecific differences in skull size and cranial capacity, quantitative morphometric analyses were not feasible; therefore, comparisons were based on qualitative gross anatomical evaluation of the os occipitale, os sphenoidale, os parietale, os temporale, os frontale, os pterygoideum, os ethmoidale, and os vomer. Although the overall organization of the ossa cranii was conserved, distinct species-specific adaptations were identified. Camels exhibited a prominent crista sagittalis externa, a broad nuchal surface, an elongated os vomer, and the absence of the tuber faciale and processus cornualis. Giraffes showed well-developed ossicones, a pronounced frontoparietal prominence, enlarged frontal sinuses, modified occipital condyles, and elongated ethmoid and vomer bones. Bovids were distinguished by horn-related structures, frontal sinus configuration, the processus jugularis, bulla tympanica, and foramen supraorbitale. Ossa cranii morphology reflects both anatomic relationships and functional adaptations associated with feeding behavior, head posture, and muscle attachment. These findings provide comparative anatomical reference data that support veterinary anatomy education, diagnostic imaging, species-specific surgical planning, and future studies in functional morphology and paleontology.