Sentinel-2 and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Imagery for Irrigation Scheduling in Fodder Maize: A Comparative Remote Sensing Approach.

Accurate estimation of crop water requirements is essential to improve irrigation efficiency for forage maize production. This study compared satellite- and UAV-derived normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) models for estimating crop coefficients (Kc) and evaluated their operational performance for irrigation scheduling. Kc-NDVI models were developed during the 2023 growing season and subsequently validated under field conditions during the 2024 season in two forage maize hybrids (N83N5 and Matador) under three irrigation strategies: conventional producer irrigation (ID1), satellite-based irrigation scheduling (ID2), and UAV-based irrigation scheduling (ID3). Both NDVI sources exhibited strong relationships with Kc, with higher calibration accuracy for the UAV model (R2 = 0.9414) than for the satellite model (R2 = 0.8278). The UAV-based model applied 23-30% less irrigation water, maintaining high water productivity but also reducing crop growth, forage yield, and nutritional quality. In contrast, satellite-based irrigation scheduling promoted greater crop growth and produced the highest forage yield, reaching 59.8 t ha-1 in hybrid N83N5 while maintaining efficient water use. This treatment also improved forage quality by increasing dry matter and starch concentrations while reducing fiber fractions. The findings highlight the complementary potential of satellite and UAV imagery in precision irrigation and underscore the trade-offs between spatial detail, temporal resolution, and operational scalability. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that a stronger Kc-NDVI relationship does not necessarily translate into improved irrigation scheduling performance. Under the conditions evaluated, the satellite-based model provided the best balance between water use, forage yield, and nutritional quality.