Progress and Perspectives on Heat Transfer Design Optimization of Functionally Graded Materials Under Large Temperature Gradients

Large temperature gradients encountered in aerospace, energy, and microelectronics systems impose stringent requirements on material thermal performance. Functionally graded materials (FGMs), characterized by a continuous variation in composition and properties, offer significant advantages in regulating heat transfer and mitigating thermal stresses. This review provides a systematic summary of recent progress in heat transfer design optimization of FGMs under large temperature gradient conditions. From a methodological perspective, advancements in structural and compositional optimization, topology optimization, and multi-objective optimization are reviewed. Numerical simulation techniques, including conventional finite element and finite volume methods, as well as emerging approaches such as peridynamics, isogeometric analysis, and meshfree methods, are discussed with an emphasis on multiphysics coupling. In addition, representative applications of FGMs in electronic thermal management, aerospace thermal protection, energy systems, and building energy conservation are reviewed. Current challenges, including idealized modeling assumptions, limited coordination among multiple optimization objectives, and insufficient reliability evaluation in complex service environments, are identified. Finally, future research directions are outlined, highlighting intelligent design methods, multiscale modeling, advanced manufacturing technologies, and multifunctional integration. This review seeks to provide a comprehensive reference for both fundamental research and engineering applications of heat transfer optimization in functionally graded materials.