Tianchuang and Enclaves: Comparing “Non-Contiguous Management Spaces” in National Parks of China and Nigeria

National parks are established to ensure ecological integrity and unified management. However, due to frequent human activities, complex land-tenure arrangements, and limited governance capacity, certain areas within park boundaries are excluded from centralized oversight, resulting in “non-contiguous management spaces.” At present, cross-national evidence on non-contiguous management spaces, particularly in developing countries, is quite limited. This study employs a qualitative comparative research design based on a literature review and policy analysis, taking Tianchuang in China’s Wuyishan National Park and Enclaves in Nigeria’s Gashaka-Gumti National Park as typical cases to compare their concept and characteristics, causes of formation, socio-ecological consequences, and governance models. The results show that: (1) In terms of concept and characteristics, Tianchuang and Enclaves are both land parcels inside park boundaries but outside unified park management. Tianchuang typically appear as numerous small, fragmented patches, whereas Enclaves are more often contiguous village blocks. Livelihoods associated with Tianchuang are more diverse, whereas those in Enclaves are mainly based on farming and herding. (2) In terms of formation, both stem from trade-offs in boundary delimitation to balance conservation and development. Tianchuang reflects an intentionally designed, proactive avoidance within a unified planning framework to mitigate conflicts and facilitate park establishment, whereas Enclaves embody a passive tolerance shaped by limited state capacity and respect for local pastoral livelihoods to prevent social conflict. (3) In terms of socio-ecological consequences, both Tianchuang and Enclaves provide room for local development but may weaken ecological connectivity, increase human—wildlife conflict, and affect community livelihoods and trust. Tianchuang reveals unclear mandates and complex coordination, whereas Enclaves expose regulatory capacity gaps and dependence on local and external actors. (4) In terms of governance models, both adopt a “co-existence” approach. Tianchuang are managed through a top-down, government-led governance model, whereas Enclaves rely on a bottom-up, multi-party deliberative governance model. Based on these findings, this study proposes policy implications for improving the governance of Tianchuang and Enclaves and provides broader insights into the governance of non-contiguous management spaces in developing-country national parks.