Carla Lombardi, Martina Marandola, Valentina Loria, Andrea Urbani, Silvia Baroni
Growth Differentiation Factor-15 (GDF-15) is a stress-responsive cytokine belonging to the Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-β) superfamily. Initially identified as macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 (MIC-1), GDF-15 is expressed in various tissues and markedly upregulated under pathological conditions involving inflammation, oxidative stress, and tissue injury. Notably, GDF-15 upregulation has been associated with several cardiovascular events, such as heart failure, atrial fibrillation, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, and stroke. Furthermore, it has been observed that GDF-15, either alone or in combination with other cardiac biomarkers, can provide valuable complementary information enhancing risk assessment, early detection of cardiovascular events, and prediction of adverse outcomes. GDF-15 can be measured in various body fluids, using different methods. Immunoassays are widely employed and offer good sensitivity and reproducibility; however, variability between methods and potential interference from genetic variants highlight the need for standardization. This review summarizes current insights into GDF-15, with emphasis on its quantification methods, biological functions in cardiovascular diseases, and its emerging role as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker.