Host Plant Apparency and Push–Pull Strategies: A Unified Framework Linking Plant-Mediated Mechanisms for Sustainable Pest Management

Host-finding behavior of insect herbivores is a key determinant of herbivory intensity in agricultural and forest ecosystems, which often drives excessive pesticide application for pest control. While host plant apparency theory explains herbivore host detection, and push-pull strategies manipulate this behavior, both produce inconsistent results and remain mechanistically disconnected. Existing frameworks like the Resource Concentration Hypothesis focus mainly on host density, ignoring the multidimensional, context-dependent nature of apparency. Here, we synthesize forest and agricultural research to develop the first unified framework linking these two concepts. We show that host plant apparency is not intrinsic but shaped by plant morphology, non-host identity, and spatial arrangement. Push-pull strategies exploit this relativity by redesigning the chemical and physical apparency landscape. We argue that: (1) push-pull system success requires reducing main crop apparency while enhancing trap crop apparency; (2) trap crops may fail when their dual functions, olfactory attraction or physical interception, are misinterpreted, with profound implications for spatial design; and (3) this integration resolves field contradictions by framing them within a common bottom-up mechanism. Our framework provides a generalizable principle for sustainable pest management: effective control depends on understanding what makes host plants apparent to target pests in their specific local environment.