AI-Driven Food Fraud Detection Systems: A Critical Systematic Review of the Detection-Prevention Gap.

The economic impact of food fraud is difficult to quantify precisely, because fraud is structurally designed to evade detection; available estimates are indirect projections rather than direct forensic accounting and are commonly cited in the range of USD 10-15 billion annually. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) with analytical instrumentation has generated a rapidly expanding body of research aimed at detecting adulteration, mislabeling, and substitution across food matrices. This systematic review examines the extent to which AI-assisted instrumental technologies contribute to food fraud prevention (as distinct from laboratory detection) and characterizes the structural factors that constrain real-world translation. A systematic search of the peer-reviewed literature published between 2021 and 2026 yielded 83 eligible records (80 primary studies and 3 review articles) after applying predefined inclusion criteria. Data were extracted into a structured seven-sheet workbook covering study characteristics, instrumental technologies, AI architectures, performance metrics, industrial-validation status, implementation evidence, and methodological quality. The corpus shows consistently high reported analytical accuracy under controlled laboratory conditions (median of extractable classification accuracies ≈ 99-100%; ≥95% in 86% of studies with an extractable value). At the same time, 68 of 83 studies (82%) reported no external validation, no study (0/83) achieved inter-laboratory validation, no study documented routine-monitoring application, and only one study reported testing in a genuine industrial environment. The most frequently featured platforms were NIR spectroscopy and electronic-nose arrays (each featuring in 30/83 studies, frequently in data-fusion combinations), followed by gas-chromatography-based systems (16/83) and hyperspectral imaging (13/83). Classical machine learning predominated (57/83 studies coded as classical ML, with a further 11 hybrid ML/DL designs and 12 deep-learning-only designs). A direct statistical comparison found no significant difference in reported accuracy between classical-ML and deep-learning studies (median 100% vs. 98.2%; Mann-Whitney U test, p = 0.16). A pre-specified test of the hypothesis that high reported accuracy is itself a marker of overfitting was not supported by the corpus: reported accuracy was not negatively associated with external-validation status (Fisher's exact p = 0.51) or with methodological-quality score (Spearman ρ = 0.15, p = 0.23). Methodological quality was predominantly moderate (49/83 scored 3/5; 22 scored 2/5; 11 scored 4/5; one study scored 5/5), and 19/83 (23%) carried a high risk of bias. The review's central observation-a measurable gap between demonstrated laboratory detection and evidenced real-world prevention-is well supported by the deployment, inter-laboratory, and routine-monitoring data. We deliberately separate this strongly evidenced conclusion from weaker inferences (e.g., the overfitting hypothesis) that the corpus cannot currently establish, and we outline a validation-driven, deployment-oriented research agenda.