Energy Optimization in Fuel Depots: A System-of-Systems Review of Cyber–Physical–Human–Institutional Integration

The global network of pipelines constitutes a strategic backbone for the world economy, enabling safe and efficient transportation of energy products. These pipelines serve distinct functions in the energy supply chain: gas pipelines support emerging cleaner energy carriers; multi-product pipelines provide versatility in transporting refined liquid fuels; and oil pipelines remain dominant for crude oil delivery. Energy management across the pipeline value chain emphasizes efficiency optimization, cost reduction, and sustainability through real-time monitoring, data analytics, integrated systems, and technological innovations spanning operations, maintenance, and emission control. Despite their critical role, petroleum depots remain relatively understudied, particularly in developing and Sub-Saharan African contexts. This review synthesizes insights from over 100 studies on energy-efficient pumping, predictive control, digitalization, and socio-technical energy management in depots. Analysis of these studies highlights recurring operational and infrastructural issues that constrain energy efficiency in depots. The challenges include irregular truck-loading schedules, frequent pump cycling, aging equipment, power-supply instability, manual operator interventions, and policy-driven constraints. The reviewed studies demonstrate that anticipatory, multi-layer control strategies integrating short-horizon flow forecasting, hybrid model predictive control, and cyber–physical–human–institutional system representations outperform reactive approaches in mitigating energy losses and operational variability. Site-specific calibration and phased deployment emerge as pragmatic pathways for implementing advanced energy optimization under the constrained conditions typical of real-world petroleum depots.