Potentially Toxic Element (PTE) Contamination in Raw Cow Milk: Insights into Concentration Levels and Dietary Exposure Risk Assessment.

Raw cow milk serves as a critical nutritional resource yet may simultaneously act as a vehicle for toxic element exposure, particularly in regions where livestock management practices increase contamination risk. This study investigated the concentrations of six potentially toxic elements (PTEs), namely nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and lead (Pb), in raw cow milk collected from 40 sites across Ranya district, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Samples were analyzed using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry, and human health risks were assessed through estimated daily intake (EDI), target hazard quotient (THQ), hazard index (HI), and carcinogenic risk (CR) metrics across three age groups: adults, children, and infants. Detected metal concentrations followed a descending order of Zn > Fe > Ni > Cu > Pb > Cd. Several metals, including Fe, Cu, and Pb, exceeded permissible thresholds. Health risk evaluation revealed that while mean THQ and HI values for adults and children remained within acceptable boundaries, infants exhibited mean HI values surpassing the safety threshold of 1.0, indicating a genuine cumulative non-carcinogenic risk. Carcinogenic risk assessment identified Ni as the predominant concern, with CR values exceeding acceptable limits across all age groups, most markedly in infants. The elevated contamination levels observed are attributable largely to the practice of grazing livestock on unmanaged pastures and allowing consumption of water from natural, untreated sources. These findings underscore the necessity of continuous PTE surveillance in raw dairy products and the implementation of targeted public health interventions to safeguard vulnerable populations, particularly infants, within the study region.