Management, socioeconomics, and One Health determinants of tick infestation in communal cattle production systems of South Africa

Background Tick infestation constrains livestock productivity and predisposes to zoonotic tick-borne disease. Therefore, this study examined management, socio-economic, and the human and environmental determinants of tick infestation in communal cattle production systems in rural South Africa. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 168 cattle-owning households across 17 villages in South Africa. Structured and validated questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-demographics, tick control practices, knowledge of tick-borne diseases, and the availability and functionality of cattle-rearing infrastructure. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and generalized linear mixed-effects models. Results Most households (82.7%) relied on communal grazing and had small herd sizes (median = 7 cattle). Although 95.8% of respondents recognized ticks as disease vectors, only 54.8% practiced regular tick control. Common tick control methods included pour-on acaricides (61.3%) and hand spraying (51.2%). Acaricide rotation was limited (27.4%). Dipping infrastructure was largely inadequate, with 94.6% of the respondents saying that their dip tanks were either non-functional or partially functional. Ninety-eight (58.3%) cattle-owning households were located more than 5 km from a functional facility. Knowledge of tick-borne diseases (3.6%) and zoonotic risks (8.9%) was low, despite frequent human-tick contact (78%). Dysfunctional dipping infrastructure (β = 0.41, p < 0.001), low household income (β = 0.29, p < 0.001), communal grazing (β = 0.25, p = 0.002), and irregular acaricide use (β = 0.33, p < 0.001) were significant factors associated with high herd-level tick burden. Majority of farmers (61.9%) spent over ZAR 1,000 (≈USD 62) annually on tick control, with higher tick burdens significantly associated ( p < 0.01) with reduced cattle market value and delayed sales. Tick infestation was also linked with poor body condition (66.7%), reduced draft power (58.3%), hides damage (51.8%), and increased acaricide expenditure (61.9%). Conclusion Persistent tick infestation in communal cattle systems is strongly influenced by socioeconomic constraints, dysfunctional dipping infrastructure, communal grazing, and irregular acaricide use. These factors were associated with substantial self-reported economic burden and elevate human exposure risks. Restoring accessible dipping services, strengthening extension support, and adopting integrated One Health tick control strategies are essential for sustainable tick control in the study area.