Endocrine-disrupting properties of heavy metal exposure contribute to the intergenerational effects on learning and memory

Heavy metals are increasingly recognized as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) capable of perturbing neurodevelopment and cognition across multiple generations. Among these, methylmercury (MeHg), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) remain global public health concerns due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation in food and water sources, and widespread human exposure. Evidence from epidemiological and experimental studies demonstrates that these metals can interfere with hormonal signaling, neurogenesis, synaptic organization, neuroendocrine regulation and epigenetic programming-processes that are essential for learning and memory formation during critical developmental windows. Collectively, current evidence supports the view that MeHg, Pb, and Cd exposure act as potent neuroendocrine disruptors capable of producing intergenerational consequences on learning and memory. In this review, we highlight the recent findings of the effects of prenatal exposure to the three heavy metals (i.e., MeHg, Pg and Cd) on developing learning and memory.