Elementary teachers' knowledge, self-efficacy, and philosophy of teaching spelling in the United States: attention to linguistic diversity

Introduction Spelling is a complex literacy skill that supports students' success in reading and writing. This study examined elementary teachers' general spelling knowledge, African American English and Spanish-related spelling knowledge, self-efficacy, and instructional philosophy. Additionally, it examined the teachers' differences across teaching positions, educational backgrounds, and workplace contexts. Methods Respondents included 66 elementary teachers in the United States with varied experiences and preparation. Using survey data, Rasch analysis, and regression, the study investigated relationships among linguistic knowledge, beliefs, and experience. Results Results indicated that teachers' spelling knowledge varied by racial and ethnic background, while no significant differences were found across preparation pathways, degree levels, or regions. Regression analyses revealed that instructional philosophy significantly predicted spelling knowledge, whereas self-efficacy did not consistently align with actual knowledge. Although teachers reported increased confidence with years of experience, their spelling knowledge did not necessarily improve, suggesting a disconnect between perceived and demonstrated competence. These findings contribute to ongoing discussions about linguistically responsive teaching by highlighting the need for deeper teacher knowledge of language, including phonological, morphological, and orthographic features. Discussion Implications point to the importance of strengthening educator preparation and professional learning to better align teacher knowledge, beliefs, and practice, particularly in ways that support equitable and linguistically responsive literacy.