Unequal access in a digital age: women's digital exclusion and socioeconomic inequalities in Vietnam

Introduction: Access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) and the skills to use them are essential for inclusive development and digital participation. As Vietnam accelerates its digital transformation, ensuring that women are not left behind is critical to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure). This study investigates the extent and socioeconomic patterning of digital exclusion among women in Vietnam. Methods: We utilized nationally representative data from the 2021 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), which covered 10,770 women aged 15-49. Digital exclusion was defined in terms of (1) no ICT access (no use of computer, internet, or mobile phone in the past 3 months) and (2) no ICT skills (unable to perform any of nine standard digital tasks). Results: Results show that 4.28% of women lacked digital access and 72.85% lacked digital skills. Inequalities were stark: access was lowest among ethnic minorities (19.55%) and the poorest quintile (17.10%), compared to 1.980.31% in the majority and richest groups. The digital skills gap was even wider, with 95.51% of the poorest women lacking ICT skills vs. 41.23% of the richest. Multivariable logistic regressions confirmed that ethnicity, wealth, rural residence, and older age were key predictors of exclusion. Conclusion: These findings underscore the urgent need for inclusive digital policies that extend beyond infrastructure to address gendered and socioeconomic barriers to digital literacy. Without targeted efforts, digital rollouts may widen existing inequalities and undermine SDG progress.