Reconceptualising spatial need hierarchies in public open spaces: a person-environment-behaviour framework

Introduction This research reconceptualises spatial need hierarchies in public open spaces (POS) as dynamic, context-dependent, and behaviourally reinforced rather than fixed and universal. Public open spaces support social interaction, wellbeing, and everyday civic life; however, their use and experience vary significantly across diverse user groups. Existing research often treats spatial needs as universal, overlooking the role of socio-cultural factors in shaping user behaviour. This study develops a Person-Environment-Behaviour (PEB) framework to examine how personal factors, including gender, age, education, and religion, are associated with variation in spatial need hierarchies and behavioural outcomes. Methods A sequential explanatory mixed-methods approach was used, integrating survey data from 495 respondents with 52 interviews across three public open spaces in New Delhi. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was used to test relationships among personal factors, spatial need hierarchy, and behavioural outcomes. Qualitative content analysis was used to reconstruct context-specific need hierarchies. Results The findings demonstrate a significant contextual restructuring of Maslow’s hierarchy, most notably the elevation of security to a foundational Level 1 need, particularly among female users. All personal factors significantly modified the spatial need hierarchy, with cultural values acting as a key mediating mechanism. Cultural values fully mediated the effect of religion and partially mediated the effects of gender, age, and education. The modified hierarchy was strongly associated with user preferences (β = 0.72), satisfaction (β = 0.68), and usage patterns (β = 0.59), explaining a substantial proportion of variance in these outcomes. Discussion The findings suggest limitations in linear and universal models of spatial motivation and establish a context-sensitive framework applicable to high-density and socio-culturally complex urban environments. Practically, the study provides an empirically grounded basis for designing inclusive and user-responsive public open spaces.