Gohar Murad Khan, Javed Nawab, Hasnain Abbas, Muhammad Ayaz, Abdur Rahman, Hafiz Ullah, Shabir Ahmad, Amjad Ali
Significant public health issues are posed by the presence of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) within the groundwater of rapidly growing urban areas. A detailed geochemical assessment of PTE distribution and sources across four major urban centers in Pakistan is presented in this research. The selected locations (Faisalabad, Lahore, Swat, and Batkhela) reflect a range of human-induced pressures. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was utilized to examine sixty groundwater samples for major ions and PTEs. Integration of multivariate statistics, geochemical modeling, and USEPA-based health risk assessments allowed for a thorough interpretation of the data. WHO guidelines of 3 µg/L for Cadmium (Cd) were surpassed in Faisalabad, Swat, and Batkhela. In contrast, Lead (Pb) levels stayed within the WHO limit of 10 µg/L in all cities. While water samples from Faisalabad were mostly classified within Ca-Cl type, Ca-HCO₃ type water characterized Swat and Batkhela. Finally, three primary contamination sources were pinpointed by principal component analysis. These included industrial salinization, agricultural impacts, and the movement of metals bound to particles. Possible health threats in three of the four urban centers were signaled by the health risk assessment. The USEPA safety threshold of 1 was exceeded by non-carcinogenic hazard indices (HI), which peaked at 2.56 for children in Swat. Standard USEPA limits were also surpassed by carcinogenic risk estimates. These values exceeded the acceptable threshold by roughly 4 to 34 times. Evidence that modern industrial and farming activities degrade groundwater quality in Pakistan is provided by this research. The necessity for specific interventions is highlighted by these results. Suggested measures include stricter control of industrial waste, sustainable farming methods, and expanded investment in water treatment systems.