Advancements in battery technology: A comprehensive review

This review presents a comprehensive examination of recent advancements in battery technology, a field that continues to underpin the rapid growth of portable electronics, electric vehicles (EVs), and large-scale energy storage systems. It begins with an overview of conventional battery chemistries, outlining the operating principles, performance metrics, and commercial relevance of both primary systems—such as alkaline and zinccarbon—and secondary systems including nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), and the diverse family of lithiumion batteries. Particular attention is given to widely used Liion chemistries such as lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium manganese oxide (LMO), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), and lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), highlighting their strengths, limitations, and evolving roles in modern applications. The review then explores emerging trends shaping the next generation of EV batteries, with a special focus on the integration of graphene and other advanced carbon materials to enhance conductivity, stability, and energy density. Developments in solid-state batteries, hybrid lithium-ion capacitors, and innovative manufacturing techniques are also discussed, alongside progress in fastcharging technologies and intelligent Battery Management Systems (BMS). Sustainability remains a central theme throughout the paper, emphasizing the importance of recycling strategies, material recovery, and ethical sourcing of critical minerals. The review concludes by assessing current market trajectories and identifying key challenges that must be addressed to achieve safer, more efficient, and environmentally responsible energy storage solutions.