Water supply and infrastructure challenges in rural low-Income arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs): A case study of Turkana, Kenya

Water supply and infrastructure challenges persist in rural, low-income arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), where climatic variability, inadequate infrastructure, and socio-economic constraints exacerbate chronic water insecurity. This study investigates these challenges in Turkana County, Kenya, an emblematic case of extreme water vulnerability in a resource-constrained ASAL context, using a mixed-methods design integrating a cross-sectional household survey (n = 475), key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs), and water-quality assessments. Microbial analysis revealed substantial health risks, with 51% of sampled points exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) and Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) thresholds for Escherichia coli (0.00 MPN/100 mL). Physicochemical assessments identified elevated fluoride and total dissolved solids in over 25% of samples, indicating widespread inorganic contamination with potential long-term health implications. Moderate correlations between fluoride and other parameters ( r = 0.62; p < 0.01) suggest complex geogenic influences and possible anthropogenic inputs. More than 70% of households reported access challenges during the dry season, underscoring severe seasonal disparities. These vulnerabilities are compounded by the absence of treatment infrastructure, limited monitoring capacity, and fragmented governance. Together, the findings provide decision-grade evidence for diagnosing and addressing water insecurity in rural low-income ASALs and support targeted infrastructure investment, enhanced water-quality safeguards, and integrated governance reforms to improve climate resilience and accelerate progress toward SDG 6.