Explaining Sustained Blockchain Decentralization with Quasi-Experiments: The Resource Flexibility of Consensus Mechanisms

Blockchains support a rapidly growing digital economy. Through decentralization, they enable the ownership and transfer of digital assets without centralized intermediaries while resisting attacks, faults, and collusion. Yet decentralization is not guaranteed and must be sustained against external shocks. What design choices help blockchains maintain decentralization when disrupted? We find that resource flexibility, how easily consensus resources can be moved and redeployed, is key to sustained decentralization. Using three real-world shocks—China’s 2021 crypto mining ban, Hetzner’s 2022 shutdown of Solana validators, and Ethereum’s transition from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake—we show that blockchains whose consensus resources are more flexible recover decentralization faster. These findings offer actionable guidance. Blockchain designers should consider resource flexibility as a first-order design parameter. Operators should diversify infrastructure across jurisdictions to reduce vulnerability to localized shocks. Policymakers should be aware that regulations targeting blockchains can have unintended effects on decentralization.