Geospatial analysis of urban expansion, land use transitions and thermal environment interactions using Google earth engine

Land surface temperature (LST) indicates that the microclimate of an urban system is significantly warmer than that of its rural counterparts. The effects of building expansion on land use land cover (LULC) are significant because it converts vegetation land to commercial and residential land, along with related infrastructure, thereby hastening LST. This study aimed to examine the effects of LULC variation on LST in Southern Punjab using Google Earth Engine (GEE). The 40-year Landsat images (1984, 1994, 2004, 2014, and 2024) were used to derive vegetation indices and LST in the Multan region. Normalized difference built-up index (NDBI) and normalized difference built-up index (NDBI) were also generated from Landsat images. In 1984, built-up area was noted 1.09% of all classes. However, regarding 2024, the building area rose (9.96%) as compared to 1984. Typically, LST is narrowed to 10.3–44.6 °C in 1984, 10.8–45 °C in 2004, and 11.5–45.3 °C in 2024. Our results indicated that NDVI had a negative relationship with lower LST, but NDBI was positively related to higher LST. The current study provides essential details on LULC and LST and will be beneficial to policymakers in developing effective land resource management policies.