Plant-derived exosomes: an emerging delivery platform for cancer therapy

Cancer continues to be the second leading cause of death globally. Although medical technologies have advanced significantly, cancer treatment still faces major challenges, such as drug resistance and dynamic alterations in tumor microenvironment (TME). Plant-derived exosomes (PDEs) are promising to serve as next-generation anticancer agents to address these issues. In this review, we highlight interdisciplinary progress in the development of PDEs as delivery systems for cancer therapy, focusing on three key advantages: (1) abundant sources and bioactive compounds: PDEs can be extracted from a wide range of plant sources using various methods, providing low immunogenicity and retaining natural pharmacological activity through preserved bioactive compounds. (2) multiple anti-tumor mechanisms: PDEs exert anticancer effects through direct tumor cell killing, modulation of the TME, and metabolic reprogramming. Their ability to engage multiple pathways may help delay or overcome drug resistance. (3) broad applications: due to their strong anti-tumor efficacy and excellent biocompatibility, PDEs have shown great potential in diverse therapeutic contexts. By summarizing cutting-edge research in PDEs, we also propose future directions for optimizing PDE-based delivery systems for clinical applications.