A review of potential health risks of radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure from mobile phones and base stations in children and pregnant women.

Over the last decade, the rapid expansion of mobile communication technologies has substantially increased population exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF). This has raised concerns about possible health implications, particularly for vulnerable groups like children and pregnant women. Although international agencies have reported no consistent evidence of harmful effects at established exposure limits, uncertainties remain regarding long-term and developmental effects. This review synthesizes and evaluates epidemiological and experimental evidence published between 2015 and 2025; a period characterized by rapid technological transitions (4G to 5G), advances in exposure assessment techniques, and increasing reliance on wireless devices. Confining the timeframe ensures a more relevant and up-to-date assessment of current exposure patterns and emerging biological insights. The review explores the association between RF-EMF exposure and major health outcomes, including reproductive and developmental effects, cancer risk, and neurological changes. It also integrates mechanistic pathways involving oxidative stress, DNA damage, and ROS signalling. Although no definitive causal relationship has been established, the evidence remains inconsistent due to variability in study design, exposure metrics, and outcome definitions. Notably, experimental and high-exposure studies provide biologically plausible mechanisms, particularly through oxidative stress pathways; however, these findings have not been consistently observed in the human population. Children and foetuses may exhibit greater susceptibility because of developmental and physiological factors, yet high-quality longitudinal evidence remains limited. Overall, further standardized, mechanistic, and long-term studies are needed to strengthen the scientific evidence base and inform public health policy.