From exposure to evidence: The present and future of rodent surgical training in laboratory animal science.

Surgical training remains one of the most consequential yet historically underexamined components of laboratory animal science (LAS). While advances in anesthesia, analgesia, asepsis, and oversight have improved welfare and scientific rigor, training has often relied on decentralized apprenticeship models with variable structure and assessment, sometimes leaving foundational surgical standards such as aseptic workflow, sterile gowning, and gloving insufficiently formalized. As regulatory expectations, societal scrutiny, and research complexity have increased, the limitations of exposure-based training have become more apparent. This perspective examines the evolution of rodent surgical training in LAS, highlighting both the strengths of the modern training ecosystem and persistent gaps in standardization, access, and competency assessment. Emerging simulation technologies, including 3D-printed and hybrid models, offer scalable opportunities to reduce training-related animal use, shorten learning curves, and introduce objective performance benchmarks before live procedures. Evidence from surgical education and experimental microsurgery supports a hybrid, competency-based approach in which simulation prepares trainees for supervised live animal work rather than replacing it. Looking ahead, coordinated validation frameworks, shared assessment tools, and institutional commitment will be essential to transition toward a structured, data-driven, and ethically aligned post-apprenticeship model of laboratory animal surgical training.