Life Extension of Lithium-Ion Battery: Degradation Comprehension, Modeling, Characterization, and Mitigation Strategies

The growing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in applications ranging from consumer electronics to electric vehicles underscores the need to extend their lifespan and ensure optimal performance. Achieving this requires a deep understanding of LIB degradation, which arises from complex chemical and physical interactions. This article provides a systematic overview of degradation mechanisms, aging models, characterization techniques, and mitigation strategies. It examines key degradation modes, their triggers, and empirical aging models for both cycling and idle conditions, while also analyzing their inter-dependencies. Common characterization techniques are reviewed and compared for their effectiveness in identifying and quantifying degradation, followed by a discussion of key precursors that are vital for early detection of catastrophic failures. Finally, the study explores operational strategies to mitigate degradation and highlights promising charging schemes for lifespan extension of LIBs.