Grey Wolf Optimization Inverse Mix Design of Steel Slag Asphalt Mixtures.

Pavement mix design for steel slag relies largely on empirical Marshall tests requiring numerous specimens and lengthy cycles. To address this, an inverse mix design (IMD) framework combining machine-learning forward prediction with grey wolf optimization (GWO) was developed. A dataset of 300 samples with 13 input features and 2 output indicators was compiled. Three algorithms-XGBoost, CatBoost, and random forest (RF)-were compared, and model interpretability was analyzed using SHAP and ALE. CatBoost achieved the best overall performance. SHAP identified steel slag f-CaO content and replacement ratio as the dominant factors governing moisture susceptibility. GWO search errors for all three design scenarios were below 0.24%. Laboratory validation showed a mean deviation of 1.02% between target and measured values, confirming the method's feasibility. The method also supports sustainable pavement engineering by facilitating higher steel slag utilization, contributing to CO2 reduction and natural aggregate conservation.