Extinction debt and colonization credit in conservation science.

Extinction debt and colonization credit describe the delayed impacts of environmental change on biodiversity, yet their significance largely remains unrecognized by those shaping conservation efforts. To address this gap, we conducted a systematic review of 127 empirical studies quantifying these biological lags across taxa, habitats and anthropogenic drivers. Our synthesis revealed geographic biases, with research concentrated in Northern Hemisphere terrestrial ecosystems, alongside taxonomic and habitat biases that continue to limit our understanding of these dynamics. Evaluation of anthropogenic drivers revealed a similarly skewed research effort, with habitat fragmentation dominating extinction debt studies and land-use change leading colonization credit research. By synthesizing proposed conservation strategies, we identified pathways for integrating time-lagged ecological responses into conservation frameworks. Despite the conceptual importance of these lags, most empirical efforts remain focused on isolated taxonomic groups, with limited consideration of how debts and credits propagate through communities or influence ecosystem services. This narrow focus restricts the utility of current findings for broad-scale conservation. We recommend that future research prioritizes the mechanisms driving lags across understudied ecosystems and environmental contexts. Crucially, conservation interventions must move beyond static biodiversity snapshots and explicitly account for extinction debt and colonization credit to ensure long-term ecosystem resilience.