Advances in Bovine Cultivated Meat and Precision Fermentation-Derived Milk Proteins: Technological, Regulatory, and Sensory Perspectives

Beef and dairy are among the most widely consumed animal-source foods, but conventional cattle farming imposes environmental and ethical burdens. This review examines two emerging cellular agriculture platforms – cultivated meat (CM) and milk proteins from precision fermentation (PF) – designed to replicate these bovine products through distinct biotechnological approaches, with a focus on their technological, regulatory, and sensory aspects. Advances in cell line and culture media development, bioreactor design, and downstream processing for CM are examined, together with strain engineering, bioprocess control, and protein purification strategies for PF-derived caseins and whey proteins. Patent, investment, and market landscapes indicate that PF offers greater technological versatility, scalability, and commercial readiness than CM, which faces higher barriers in cost-effective large-scale production. Adoption of CM and PF-derived milk depends on safety assessments, but fragmented regulatory frameworks across countries hinder commercialization and undermine consumer trust. Sensory replication, particularly in texture, flavor, and fat integration, remains a barrier for both technologies. Synergistic integration, such as employing PF-derived growth factors, fats, and organoleptic molecules to enhance CM production, represents a strategy to advance their development and market acceptance. Addressing technological bottlenecks, harmonizing regulations, and refining sensory profiles will be essential for their integration into global food systems.