Nanoparticles in food: formation during cooking, migration from packaging, and nanoplastics release—food safety implications

This review examines the influence of cooking and processing on the formation, migration, properties, and potential health impacts of nanoparticles (NPs) in food, with a particular focus on the research gap in food nanotoxicology. It emphasises the formation of food-derived nanoparticles (FDNPs), primarily fluorescent carbon nanoparticles (CNPs), during thermal processing, the migration of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) from food packaging, and the release of nanoplastics during food preparation. The review also addresses exposure through food additives containing nanoparticles, such as titanium dioxide (TiO2). Cooking processes, especially at high temperatures, generate CNPs with varying sizes and compositions, influencing their biodistribution and potential toxicity. Migration studies show that nanosilver transfers from packaging into food simulants, with rates increasing with temperature and storage time but typically remaining below regulatory limits. The review highlights the need for standardised analytical methods, mechanistic studies, and long-term exposure studies to fully understand the health implications of FDNPs and the differences between industrial processing and home cooking.