Characterization and health risks of groundwater: insights from AWWQI, EWWQI and TCHI models in Jaipur district, Rajasthan, western India

This study presents groundwater quality and associated non-carcinogenic health risks in Jaipur district of western India, based on the 274 analytical hydrochemical data in May 2021 retrieved from the Department of Ground Water, Rajasthan. Hydrochemical parameters (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), major ions, nitrate and fluoride) were assessed, and water suitability was examined using arithmetic weighted water quality index (AWWQI), entropy weighted water quality index (EWWQI) and total chronic hazard index (TCHI). TDS ranged from 195 mg/L to 6780 mg/L, with 62% of samples exceeding the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) limit, indicating salinity enrichment. Nitrate in 27% and fluoride in 15% samples surpassed safe thresholds, mainly in agricultural and discharge areas. Hydrochemical facies were dominated by Na-Cl and Na-HCO3 water types, controlled by rock-water interaction and evaporation. Multivariate analysis revealed anthropogenic influences. AWWQI and EWWQI classified 44% and 30% of the samples as poor to unfit, while TCHI (>1.0) indicated significant health risks, especially to children. This integrated approach supports the SDG-3 and SDG-6 for groundwater management.