Participatory Design revisited: framings, key features, and its boundary with co-design

Participatory Design (PD) is a widely adopted design approach that involves users directly as co-designers, particularly in technology development. Despite its popularity, PD is often misunderstood and conflated with the broader concept of Co-Design and other user-centred design methods. In this paper, we re-examine the historical and contemporary conceptual foundations of PD to clarify its defining characteristics. We consolidate these characteristics into four core dimensions: cooperation with intended users, political commitment to democracy and empowerment, mutual learning through knowledge exchange, and creativity through reflection-in-action. Furthermore, we differentiate co-design as a broader concept of ‘designing with’, while positioning PD as a specific form of co-design with a stronger emphasis on political engagement. By elucidating the key features and the relationship between PD and Co-Design, we hope to deepen the understanding of PD and establish a robust foundation for its continued evolution and impactful application in design-based research and practices.