Introduction to special issue: the influence of menopause and other hormonal changes on neuropsychological functioning.

BACKGROUND: Menopause has historically been viewed through the lens of hormonal influences on sex organs and reproduction, despite evidence of widespread systemic hormonal effects. When seen through a neuropsychological perspective, it is critical to understand that many sex hormones, including estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and anti-Mullerian hormone, directly influence brain functioning. With these considerations in mind, distinct changes in hormonal levels that affect women at different periods throughout their lifetime are a central consideration for neuropsychologists. Considering menopause specifically, the menopausal transition includes variations in estradiol and progesterone levels, leading to eventual cessation of ovarian function. Alongside vasomotor symptoms, urogenital symptoms, and mood symptoms, there is evidence to support both subjective and objective cognitive changes during menopause. METHODOLOGY & RESULTS: Overall, articles from the current special issue can broadly be divided into two categories: (1) research investigating subjective and/or objective cognitive functioning during periods of hormonal transitions, including midlife and (2) the influence of reproductive factors on long-term cognitive outcomes. Here, they are briefly overviewed, followed by a discussion on applications to clinical care. CONCLUSION: Overall, these articles in the present special issue address a dearth of research on the relationship between reproduction, female sex hormones, menopause, and other factors with women's neuropsychological functioning, and aim to provide a significant contribution to the field, as well as spark interest among clinicians and researchers alike to continue to pursue these understudied topics.