D Gopakumar, Gopika Meenakumari Gopakumar
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of mortality worldwide, demanding rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective diagnostic technologies. For instance, Cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) are important myocardial infarction and heart failure biomarkers, respectively. Traditional immunoassay-based methods, although accurate, often suffer from complex procedures, high cost, and delayed response times. In this context, hybrid nanocomposite-based electrochemical biosensors have emerged as powerful alternatives, integrating plasmonic nanostructures, graphene nanosheets, carbon nanotubes, and metal-organic or polymeric frameworks to enhance signal recognition, electron transfer, and analytical productivity. This review comprehensively discusses recent progress in label-free electrochemical platforms, including impedance spectroscopy, differential pulse voltammetry, and constant current techniques, alongside the role of bio-nanohybrid materials in amplifying sensitivity and selectivity. It dives into the constitutive elements of the devices, such as smartphone-based analytical systems and microfluidic and portable lab-on-chip devices, and outline the analytical parameters including detection in the femtogram ranges, diverse concentration ranges, and response time. The paper scrutinizes the level of selectivity to different samples of blood and urine and also discuss the practical aspects, including the low bioreceptor adsorption, control of random coupling, and administrative substances to limit fragmentation. Finally, emerging trends involving wireless arrays, multiplexed signal processing, and real-time monitoring are outlined, emphasizing future directions toward scalable, sustainable, and translational electrochemical biosensing systems for cardiovascular health management.