Advances in green electrospinning for biomedical applications: sustainable solvents, biomaterials, and processing techniques.

Green electrospinning is an emerging approach to fabricating environmentally responsible and biocompatible nanofibrous materials for biomedical applications. Reducing or eliminating the use of hazardous organic solvents through aqueous, alternative-solvent, and solvent-free processing approaches has the potential to minimise environmental and occupational concerns associated with conventional electrospinning. However, the sustainability of an electrospinning process cannot be determined solely by the polymer's origin or biodegradability; the entire processing pathway, including solvents, additives, residual components, and energy requirements, must also be considered. This review critically examines advances in green electrospinning for biomedical applications, with emphasis on environmentally favourable solvent systems, sustainable polymers, and solvent-free techniques. It evaluates their influence on electrospinnability, fibre formation, biomedical suitability, and translational potential, while distinguishing genuinely lower-impact approaches from systems employing high-concern solvents. By providing a critical and comparative perspective, this review aims to guide the development of sustainable, reproducible, and clinically relevant electrospun nanofibrous materials for biomedical applications.