Environmental impact of heavy metals on aquatic systems: a comprehensive review

The contamination of aquatic ecosystems with heavy metals is a major risk to both human and environmental health. The origins, environmental behavior, and ecological implications of heavy metals are thoroughly examined in this review, with a focus on their toxicity, bioaccumulation, and persistence in water systems. Heavy metal levels are influenced by a variety of environmental parameters, including pH, redox potential, and organic matter. These factors are both naturally occurring and caused by human activity, including industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and urban discharge. Advanced analytical approaches, encompassing spectroscopic, chromatographic, and sensor-based techniques, have improved detection sensitivity and specificity; however, challenges related to high costs, operational complexity, and limited real-time applicability remain. Emerging solutions, including portable sensors, biosensors, and AI-driven predictive models, offer promising pathways for rapid, in-situ monitoring. Additionally, nanotechnology-enabled platforms, microfluidic lab-on-chip devices, omics-based biomarker discovery, and blockchain-integrated cloud systems are redefining the landscape of detection and risk assessment. This review highlights current challenges, knowledge gaps, and future research directions, advocating for an integrated framework that merges innovative technologies with environmentally compatible remediation and robust policy measures. Implementing such multidimensional strategies is imperative for safeguarding aquatic ecosystems and ensuring sustainable water resource management globally.