Blessing Chidinma Nwachukwu, Bukola Opeyemi Oluwarinde, Daniel Jesuwenu Ajose, Ozede Nicholas Igiehon, Timothy Sibanda
Abstract Background: Climate change poses significant threats to global agriculture, intensifying the effects of biotic and abiotic stresses that reduce crop production and imperil food security. Bioinoculants, specifically arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and other beneficial microbial consortia, offer potential, eco-friendly alternatives to traditional agrochemical fertilizers within the structure of climate-smart agriculture. Methods: This review explores the mechanisms through which bioinoculants promote plant adaptation and mitigate stress, including their roles in nutrient acquisition, antioxidant synthesis, modulation of phytohormones, and improvement of soil structure and health. Results: Diverse applications of bioinoculants are discussed, with emphasis on enhancing crop yield and resilience under various harsh climate conditions, including salinity, drought, and extreme temperatures. The review critically peruses the challenges and limitations of bioinoculant use, such as their interaction with the native soil microbial community, variable efficacy, formulation stability, and scalability. Conclusions: By synthesizing current advances and identifying knowledge gaps, this review provides a comprehensive evaluation of the potential and limitations of bioinoculants in advancing climate-smart agriculture and offers strategic insights for researchers, policy makers, and practitioners dedicated to the development of agricultural sustainability.