Nanovaccine platforms for cancer immunotherapy from ex vivo engineering to in situ antigen capture strategies.

Cancer vaccines enable minimally invasive suppression of tumor progression and postoperative recurrence but remain constrained by tumor heterogeneity, weak antigen immunogenicity, and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments. Recent advances in tumor antigen biology, antitumor immunology, and nanotechnology have accelerated the development of nanovaccines as promising therapeutic platforms. This review describes the core components and structural characteristics of nanovaccines to elucidate their mechanisms of action and structure-function relationships. We systematically summarize the two major nanovaccine strategies for cancer immunotherapy, namely ex vivo engineering and in situ antigen capture, and highlight their design principles, advantages, and limitations. We further analyze the barriers to achieving durable antitumor immunity and discuss key considerations for the rational design and clinical translation of nanovaccines. By bridging materials science and tumor immunology, this review provides perspectives for overcoming current challenges and advancing personalized cancer immunotherapy.