Subham Preetam, Muhammad Fazle Rabbee, Richa Mishra, Shailendra Thapliyal, Ravi K. Deshwal, Sarvesh Rustagi, Archana Dashmana, Rasiravathanahalli K. Govindarajan, Sumira Malik
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This review explores the latest progress in MNP-based theranostics, highlighting their physicochemical properties, functionalization strategies, and mechanisms of action in brain cancer therapy. Additionally, we discuss novel approaches such as stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, BBB penetration techniques, and multifunctional hybrid nanoparticles. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical studies are reviewed to assess the current status and translational challenges. Despite promising outcomes, toxicity, biodistribution, and long-term biocompatibility remain key hurdles in clinical applications. Addressing these limitations will pave the way for personalized nanomedicine-based brain cancer treatment, optimizing therapeutic efficacy and patient outcomes.