Plant-extract-mediated synthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles for sustainable lead detoxification: experimental evaluation and docking studies

, and contact time 2 h). The adsorption mechanism is driven by both chemical (complexation, precipitation, and ion exchange) and physical electrostatic attractions. The kinetic study reveals that five kinetic models, namely, pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, mixed first- and second-order, Avrami, and intraparticle diffusion, can describe the adsorption of Pb(ii) onto CuO NPs, depending on the initial Pb(ii) concentration. Adsorption isotherm modelling shows that among the eleven models studied, Freundlich isotherm best describes the adsorption system, with strong agreement between experimental and calculated data. Future research can thus focus on enhancing the synthesis process while examining the selectivity and reusability of CuO NPs for decontaminating the diverse metals present in intricate wastewater systems.