Yihan Xu, Tianxiang Yan, Xiangrui Zhang, Wei Liu, Yichen Meng, Jianlong Lin, Zhaoli Gao, Thomas J. Meyer, Sheng Zhang, Xinbin Ma
, porous architectures, hydrophobic modifications, and heterostructure engineering) and analyze associated failure modes. Furthermore, we extend these concepts to other electrochemical reactions, including oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution/oxidation, to extract universal principles that guide catalyst design. This review aims to provide a comprehensive framework for advancing the field of sustainable electrocatalysis and its future role in clean energy technologies.